Table 5: Characteristics of quantitative studies reporting correlations and associations

1.

Pakenham et al. (2007)

Australia

Relations between social support, appraisal and coping and both positive and negative outcomes in young carers

Newly developed questionnaire, consisting of: demographic information, caregiving context variables, stress appraisal -, social support-, coping strategies – and adjustment items

Survey

Bivariate and multivariate analyses Convenience sampling: Young carers n = 100 (F n = 72; M n = 28)

Age: 10–25

Care recipients: parents

2.

Ireland and Pakenham (2010)

Australia

To develop an empirically derived multi-item scale of care tasks performed by young people in the context of family illness/disability

Based on the literature review and in consultation with a reference group of five young carers, a questionnaire was developed (30 items): “Youth Activities of Caregiving Scale (YACS)”

Survey

Bivariate and multivariate analyses Convenience sampling: Young carers n = 135 (F n = 81; M n = 54)

Age: 10–24 Care recipients: mother n = 73, father n = 25, sibling n = 37

3.

Ireland and Pakenham (2010)

Australia

To (1) examine relations between youth adjustment and three sets of predictors: parental illness/disability characteristics, caregiving, and parent–child attachment, and (2) to explore differences on these variables between youths of parental physical illness/disability and youths of parental mental illness

Newly developed questionnaire, consisting of: demographic information, illness and disability variables, Inventory of parent–child attachment (IPPA), the Young Carers of Parents Inventory (YCOPI), The Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaire (SDQ)

Survey

Bivariate and multivariate analyses Convenience sampling: Young carers n = 81 (F n = 53; M n = 28)

Age: 10–25

Care recipients: mother n = 56, father n = 17, both parents n = 8

4.

Pakenham and Cox

(2012)

Australia

1. to explore the dimensions of caregiving in children of a parent with MS

2. to examine relations between the caregiving dimensions and child demographic, parental illness and caregiving context variables

3. to examine associations between the caregiving dimensions and child positive and negative adjustment outcomes, concurrently and over a 12-month interval

4. to examine levels of correspondence between parent and child ratings of thechild’s caregiving activities

Two age-appropriate youth questionnaires: 10–13 years and 14–20 years were developed, consisting of: demographic information, MS parent illness variables, caregiving context variables, Family responsibilities (YCOPI), Youth Activities of Caregiving Scale (YACS) and adjustment variables

Longitudinal study, Survey

Bivariate and multivariate analyses Convenience sampling:

Assessed time T1:

Families n = 88; parents n = 85; partners n = 55; children (F n = NR; M n = NR)n = 130

Assessed time T2 (after 12 month):

n = NR Families; n = 71 parents; n = 48 partners; n = 91 children (F n = NR; M n = NR) Age: 10–20 Care recipients: parents

5.

Lloyd (2013)

Ireland

To look at the extent of caring responsibilities experienced by children and at the relationship between caring, educational experiences and academic performance, and children’s happiness, health and well-being

Self-developed questionnaire, consisting of: sociodemographic data School data

Health and wellbeing (Kidscreen)Happiness

School and educational achievement (transfer-test, GL, AQE)

Kids‘Life and Times Survey (online)

Univariate and bivariate analysis

Random sample: n = 4029 children

Age: 10–11

Care recipient: grandmother 44%, mother 33%, brother 33%, grandfather 27%, father 26%, sister 26%

6.

Nagl-Cupal et al. (2014)

Austria

To describe the prevalence and related factors of informal caregiving performed by children

To quantify caregiving activities and intensity, the motivation for To calculate the prevalence rate of all underage children in Austria based on the sample data

Self-developed questionnaire, consisting of:

sociodemographic data, caregiving activities, type and frequency of illness of the family member in need, caregiving arrangement, motivations of caregiving, effects of caregiving, personal wishes

Descriptive cross-sectional study

Univariate, bivariate and multivariate analysis

Random sample (multi-level probability sample): n = 7403 children (F n = 53,5%; M n = 46,5%)

Age: 10–14

Care recipient: mother 23%, grandmother 22%, father 14%, grandfather 11%, siblings 12%

7.

Cassidy et al. (2014)

UK

To test whether a stress-coping model can contribute to an explanation of the impact of caregiving and whether resilience and benefit finding can mediate that relationship

Self-developed questionnaire, consisting of:

sociodemographic data, measures (Perceived social support Scale, Adolescent Coping Scale – short form, General Health Questionnaire, Brief Resilience Scale, 19 item index of help, The Perceived Impact of Child Care-giving Scale, The Benefit Finding in Child Caregivers Scale)

Survey

univariate, bivariate and multivariate analysis

Convenience sample: n = 442 children (F n = 268; M n = 174)

Age: 12–16

Care recipient: 203 children care for parents, 168 children care for a sibling, 71 care for more than one family member

8.

9.

Pakenham and Cox (2015)

Australia

Van Loon et al.(2017)

Netherlands

To examine differences in two proposed psychological components of role redistribution between youth of a parent with illness and their peers from ‘healthy’ families

To examine the effect of parentification on both internalizing and externalizing problems of Adolescents who have a Parent with Mental Health Problems

Self-developed questionnaire, consisting of: Family health status, illness category, relative disadvantage, remoteness, national origins, caregiving responsibilities and experiences (Young Carer of Parents Inventory-Part A)

The Parentification Questionnaire—Youth (PQ-Y), consists of 20 items measuring the caregiving behaviors of youth in their family;

The Youth Self-Report (YSR) measuring the problems adolescents experienced in the previous 6 months.

The Perceived Stress Scale (PSS-4) - consisting of four items measuring the degree to which adolescents perceived their lives as uncontrollable, unpredictable, or overloaded in the past month;

Survey

Bivariate and multivariate analysis

Random. sample: children n = 2474 (F n = NR; M n = NR)

Age: 9–20

Care recipient: parents and other ill family member, several ill family member Survey

Bivariate and multivariate analyses

Convenience sample: n = 118 adolescents (F n = 50,8%; M n = 49,2%)

Age: 11–16

Care recipient: parents with a mental illness: mother 70,3%, father 29,7%